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Response Essay

Thu, 29 Oct 2009 23:05:10 +0000

Thesis
A thesis might be about some trends in the use of images in the work or about parallels with the author’s own life.
Body
The body of the response essay is a careful working through of the work in question, examining all relevant aspects of it. Usually there is too much to work with so you need to focus your work on a limited number of points.
Some of the ways you read through a work of literature include
* identify literary devices such as simile, metaphor, image, alliteration, assonance, onomatopoiea and others and show how they help to convey the overall meaning of the work.
* find themes which are addressed in various parts of the work and show how they contribute to the overall meaning.
* find the roots of words such as the Greek or Latin roots or archaic usage and show how the writer has used these deeper meanings to add layers of complexity to his work.
* relate aspects of the work to the author’s own life or experience.
Conclusion
All you have to do is state that the bulk of your evidence supports your thesis. If there are any major arguments against your thesis, you can take one more shot at them.
What is the maker looking for?
A new analysis of an old work might be a good start. Find subtle points, which support your argument, which you haven’t seen, presented in other essays. A creative thesis is a good start, but beware of trying to make a work of art say something, which the author couldn’t have possibly intended. (There’s a whole bunch of critical theory around this,but unless you are working on a graduate level essay, just stick to things relevant to the author.)

Research Essay

Thu, 29 Oct 2009 23:05:07 +0000

Thesis
Take care in selecting your thesis. This is really a type of persuasive essay, but you don’t want to be stuck either just repeating someone else’s opinion, or citing all the same sources. Try to come up with an original thesis or take an aspect of someone’s thesis and develop it. You can also take a thesis and “transplant” it into different circumstances. For example, use tools of modern economics to argue about the role of medieval guilds in the development of early European settlements. Or take a study done on children in France and try to show it is/isn’t applicable to elderly Florida residents. An original thesis is the best start you can make to get a high grade in a research essay.
Your thesis is the most critical aspect of your research essay. It not only organizes the material you are presenting, it also focuses your research efforts.
Body
Again, it’s a marshalling of facts to support your argument. Make sure you have found out in any academics have made similar arguments and acknowledge them in your essay, even if you did not draw directly from them. If they said things, which don’t support your argument, say why these statements are either wrong or not applicable in the circumstances.
Conclusion
Typically you summarize your arguments. You can also end with an example or a quote, which sums up your arguments.
What are markers looking for?
As usual, a clearly-written, well organized essay. Top marks would go to an original thesis, which showed thorough research and good writing. If you have a tired old thesis, no matter how well you write the essay, your grades will be limited.

Exploratory Essay

Thu, 29 Oct 2009 23:04:47 +0000

The concept of an exploratory essay is that you start without an end in mind. You don’t necessarily know how you feel about a subject or what you want to say about the subject, you allow the research and your own direction to determine the outcome. This is writing to learn rather than writing to prove what you know.
Purpose: The exploratory essay builds on the inquiry essay by having you look at and contribute to a range of arguments rather than just one at a time. Whereas the inquiry essay introduced you to a debate by looking at one argument a time, the exploratory essay asks you to widen your vision to the whole conversation.
1. The focus of an exploratory essay is a question, rather than a thesis.
2. The two main ways to compose an exploratory essay yield different effects: The “in-process” strategy produces immediacy, while a “retrospective” strategy produces more artistically designed essays.
3. Exploratory essays chronicle your research actions and the thinking that results from those actions; they address both content-oriented questions and rhetorical questions about possible responses to the problem under consideration.
4. Exploratory essays regularly consider the strengths and weaknesses of various different solutions to a perplexing problem.
5. Exploratory essays are often dialectical in either the Platonic or Hegelian sense of that term because they recreate the engagement of antithetical positions, sometimes resulting in a productive synthesis of contraries.

Definition Essay

Thu, 29 Oct 2009 23:04:44 +0000

What is a Definition Essay?
A definition essay is writing that explains what a term means. Some terms have definite, concrete meanings, such as glass, book, or tree. Terms such as honesty, honor, or love are abstract and depend more on a person’s point of view.
Three Steps to Effective Definition
1. Tell readers what term is being defined.
2. Present clear and basic information.
3. Use facts, examples, or anecdotes that readers will understand.
Choosing a Definition
Choosing a definition is a key step in writing a definition essay. You need to understand the term before you can define it for others. Read the dictionary, but don’t just copy the definition. Explain the term briefly in your own words. Also, it’s important to limit your term before you start defining it. For example, you could write forever on the term “love.” To limit it, you would write about either “romantic love,” “platonic love,” or “first love.”
Thesis Statement of a Definition Essay
The thesis statement usually identifies the term being defined and provides a brief, basic definition.
(term) (basic definition)
Ex: Assertiveness is standing up for your rights.
How To Write an Effective Definition
1. Create a definition. There are several ways to define a term. Here are a few options.
* Define by function. Explain what something does or how something works.
* Define by structure. Tell how something is organized or put together.
*
Define by analysis. Compare the term to other members of its class and then illustrate the differences. These differences are special characteristics that make the term stand out. For example, compare a Siberian husky to other dogs, such as lap dogs, mutts, or sporting dogs.
(term) (precise definition)
Ex: A Siberian husky is a dog reputed for its ability to tolerate cold, its distinctive features, and its keen strength and stamina.
* Define by what the term does not mean. This distinction can sometimes clarify a definition and help a reader to better understand it.
2. Use understandable facts, examples, or anecdotes. Select facts, examples, or anecdotes to fully explain your definition. Ask yourself, “Which examples will best help readers understand the term? What examples would most appeal to my readers? Will a brief story reveal the term’s meaning?” Do not use any examples that will not support the definition.
Remember: A definition essay is writing that explains what a term means. When writing a definition essay, remember to tell readers what term is being defined, to present a clear and basic definition, and to use facts, examples, or anecdotes that readers will understand

Comparison Essay

Thu, 29 Oct 2009 23:04:42 +0000

To write a comparison or contrast essay that is easy to follow, first decide what the similarities or differences are by writing lists on scrap paper. Which are more significant, the similarities or the differences? Plan to discuss the less significant first, followed by the more significant. It is much easier to discuss ONLY the similarities or ONLY the differences, but you can also do both.
Then for organizing your essay, choose one of the plans described below whichever best fits your list. Finally, and this is important, what main point (thesis) might you make in the essay about the two people/things being compared? Do not begin writing until you have a point that the similarities or differences you want to use help to prove. Your point should help shape the rest of what you say: For example, if you see that one of your similarities or differences is unrelated to the point, throw it out and think of one that is related. Or revise your point. Be sure this main point is clearly and prominently expressed somewhere in the essay.
Plan A: Use Plan A if you have many small similarities and/or differences. After your introduction, say everything you want to say about the first work or character, and then go on in the second half of the essay to say everything about the second work or character, comparing or contrasting each item in the second with the same item in the first. In this format, all the comparing or contrasting, except for the statement of your main point, which you may want to put in the beginning, goes on in the SECOND HALF of the piece.
Plan B: Use Plan B if you have only a few, larger similarities or differences. After your introduction, in the next paragraph discuss one similarity or difference in BOTH works or characters, and then move on in the next paragraph to the second similarity or difference in both, then the third, and so forth, until you’re done. If you are doing both similarities and differences, juggle them on scrap paper so that in each part you put the less important first (”X and Y are both alike in their social positions . . .”), followed by the more important (”but X is much more aware of the dangers of his position than is Y”). In this format, the comparing or contrasting goes on in EACH of the middle parts.
The following outline may be helpful; however, do not be limited by it.
1. Intro. with thesis
2. 1st similarity
1. 1st work
2. 2nd work
3. 2nd similarity
1. 1st work
2. 2nd work
4. 1st difference
1. 1st work
2. 2nd work
5. 2nd difference
1. 1st work
2. 2nd work

Argumentative Essay

Thu, 29 Oct 2009 23:04:31 +0000

The function of an argumentative essay is to show that your assertion (opinion, theory, hypothesis) about some phenomenon or phenomena is correct or more truthful than others’. The art of argumentation is not an easy skill to acquire. Many people might think that if one simply has an opinion, one can argue it successfully, and these folks are always surprised when others don’t agree with them because their logic seems so correct. Argumentative writing is the act of forming reasons, making inductions, drawing conclusions, and applying them to the case in discussion; the operation of inferring propositions, not known or admitted as true, from facts or principles known, admitted, or proved to be true. It clearly explains the process of your reasoning from the known or assumed to the unknown. Without doing this you do not have an argument, you have only an assertion, an essay that is just your unsubstantiated opinion.
Notice that you do not have to completely prove your point; you only have to convince reasonable readers that your argument or position has merit; i.e., that it is somehow more accurate and complete than competing arguments.
Argumentative essays are often organized in the following manner:
1. They begin with a statement of your assertion, its timeliness, significance, and relevance in relation to some phenomenon.
2. They review critically the literature about that phenomenon.
3. They illustrate how your assertion is “better” (simpler or more explanatory) than others, including improved (i.e., more reliable or valid) methods that you used to accumulate the data (case) to be explained.
Finally revise and edit, and be sure to apply the critical process to your argument to be certain you have not committed any errors in reasoning or integrated any fallacies for which you would criticize some other writer.
Additionally, you will want to find out how your readers will object to your argument. Will they say that you have used imprecise concepts? Have you erred in collecting data? Your argument is only as strong as the objections to it. If you cannot refute or discount an objection, then you need to rethink and revise your position.

Admission Essay

Thu, 29 Oct 2009 23:04:28 +0000

Essays are used to learn more about your reasons for applying to the course, university or company and your ability to benefit from and contribute to it. Your answers will let you state your case more fully than other sections of the application, and provide the evaluator with better insight about you and how you differ from the other applicants. In marginal cases, the essays are used to decide whether an applicant will be selected. The purpose of the admissions essay is to convey a sense of your unique character to the admissions committee. The essay also demonstrates your writing skills as well as your ability to organize your thoughts coherently.
Sample essay topics
There are hundreds of possible topics that you can be asked to write an essay on. Given below are some of the more common ones.
1. What events, activities or achievements have contributed to your own self-development?
2. Describe a situation in which you had significant responsibility and what you learned from it.
3. Describe your strengths and weaknesses in two areas: setting and achieving goals, and working with other people.
4. Your career aspirations and factors leading you to apply to this course at this time. Describe a challenge to which you have successfully responded. What did you learn about yourself as you responded to this challenge? Describe a challenge you anticipate facing in any aspect of college life. On the basis of what you learned from your earlier response, how do you expect to deal with this challenge?
5. Describe and evaluate one experience that significantly influenced your academic interests. The experience might be a high school course, a job, a relationship, or an extracurricular activity. Be sure to explain how this experience led to your setting the goals you now have for yourself, and why you think the academic program for which you are applying will help you to reach those goals.
6. Describe your educational, personal or career goals.
7. Role Model - If you could meet/be/have dinner with anyone in history, who would it be and why?
8. Past Experience - Describe an event that has had a great impact on you and why?
9. What was your most important activity/course in high school and why?
10. Forecast important issues in the next decade, century - nationally, globally.
11. Why do you want to study at this university?
12. Tell us something about yourself, your most important activities?
13. How would your room, computer or car describe you?
List all your activities for the past four years. Include school activities; awards, honors, and offices held; community services; jobs; and travel. Record major travel experiences. Note your strongest impressions and how they affected you. If you loved the Grand Canyon, for example, write down three specific reasons why, aside from the grandeur and beauty that everyone loves. Describe an accomplishment that you had to struggle to achieve. Include what it was, how you tackled it, and how it changed you.
Think of one or two sayings that you’ve heard again and again around your house since childhood. How have they shaped your life? What personality traits do you value most in yourself? Choose a few and jot down examples of how each has helped you. Think of things that other people often say about you. Write about whether or not you agree with their assessments and how they make you feel.
Brainstorm “top ten” lists in a few selected categories: favorite books, plays, movies, sports, eras in history, famous people, etc. Review your list to see which items stand out and describe what they’ve added to your life. Describe “regular people” who have motivated you in different ways throughout your life. It could be someone you only met once, a third-grade teacher, or a family member or friend.
Starting your essay
The most common topic–particularly if only one essay is required–is the first, “tell us about yourself.” Since this kind of essay has no specific focus, applicants sometimes have trouble deciding which part of their lives to write about. Beware of the chronological list of events that produces dull reading. Remember, also, to accent the positive rather than the negative side of an experience. If you write about the effect of a death, divorce, or illness on your life, tell about but don’t dwell on your bad luck and disappointments.
Instead, emphasize what you have learned from the experience, and how coping with adversity has strengthened you as an individual.
1. Tie yourself to the college: Why are you interested in attending, and what can the institution do for you? Be specific. Go beyond “XYZ College will best allow me to realize my academic potential.
2. Read the directions carefully and follow them to the letter. In other words, if the essay is supposed to be 500 words or less, don’t submit 1000 words.
3. Consider the unique features of the institution, e.g., a liberal arts college will be impressed with the variety of academic and personal interests you might have, while an art institute would be most interested in your creative abilities.
4. Be positive, upbeat and avoid the negatives, e.g. I am applying to your school because I won’t be required to take physical education or a foreign language.
5. Emphasize what you have learned, e.g. provide more than a narration when recounting an experience.
6. Write about something you know, something only you could write.
7. Make certain you understand the question or the topic. Your essay should answer the question or speak directly to the given topic.
8. List all ideas. Be creative. Brainstorm without censoring.
9. Sort through ideas and prioritize. You cannot tell them everything, Be selective.
10. Choose information and ideas which are not reflected in other parts of your application. This is your chance to supplement your application with information you want them to know.
11. Be persuasive in showing the reader you are deserving of admission. Remember your audience.

Welcome to Essay Writing Center

Thu, 29 Oct 2009 23:04:21 +0000

Welcome to Essay Writing Center
Essay Info is for anyone who wants to improve the writing skills. Whether your purpose is to get better grades at school or just to enjoy the writing process Essay Info will lead you to your goal. It is intended mainly for college students and useful for those of you, who strive to write more clearly, gracefully, and efficiently. We are not limited to the information about the basics of academic writing. We bring to your attention hints on effective resume and cover letter writing, making a presentation in class and at work. At Essay Info you can find quick tips for making any writing assignment sound great.
If you just plan to enroll to college, Essay Info will provide you all information you need on financial aid and finding money for your college education. We know everything about scholarships. We know how to apply and get one. We have a ready plan of actions for you.
Writing is a good way to stimulate learning and critical thinking. There are numerous forms of writing that students face everyday. This site was designed to help you in achieving better results with your writing assignment. We are here to explain you the whole process of writing in the simple and understandable way. At Essay Info you will find guidelines for writing various types of academic assignments. We offer a framework for analyzing essays from their overall structure down to individual words. You become a better writer primarily by reflecting and analyzing rather than memorizing.
The information presented here have been collected and worked through by professional essay writers, college professors, and people dedicated to human resources during many years. Our purpose was to collect practical information from people with considerable writing experience. We believe that the best knowledge you get, you get through experience. So this is the place where we share with you our experience and hope to help you in your work. We hope you find the information on this web site useful and notice an improvement in your writing very soon.

Introduction to Prewriting (Invention)

Thu, 29 Oct 2009 23:04:18 +0000

When you sit down to write…
* Does your mind turn blank?
* Are you sure you have nothing to say?
If so, you’re not alone. Many writers experience this at some time or another, but some people have strategies or techniques to get them started. When you are planning to write something, try some of the following suggestions.
You can try the textbook formula:
1. State your thesis.
2. Write an outline.
3. Write the first draft.
4. Revise and polish.
. . . but that often doesn’t work.
Instead, you can try one or more of these strategies:
Ask yourself what your purpose is for writing about the subject.
There are many “correct” things to write about for any subject, but you need to narrow down your choices. For example, your topic might be “dorm food.” At this point, you and your potential reader are asking the same question, “So what?” Why should you write about this, and why should anyone read it?
Do you want the reader to pity you because of the intolerable food you have to eat there?
Do you want to analyze large-scale institutional cooking?
Do you want to compare Purdue’s dorm food to that served at Indiana University?
Ask yourself how you are going to achieve this purpose.
How, for example, would you achieve your purpose if you wanted to describe some movie as the best you’ve ever seen? Would you define for yourself a specific means of doing so? Would your comments on the movie go beyond merely telling the reader that you really liked it?
Start the ideas flowing
Brainstorm. Gather as many good and bad ideas, suggestions, examples, sentences, false starts, etc. as you can. Perhaps some friends can join in. Jot down everything that comes to mind, including material you are sure you will throw out. Be ready to keep adding to the list at odd moments as ideas continue to come to mind.
Talk to your audience, or pretend that you are being interviewed by someone - or by several people, if possible (to give yourself the opportunity of considering a subject from several different points of view). What questions would the other person ask? You might also try to teach the subject to a group or class.
See if you can find a fresh analogy that opens up a new set of ideas. Build your analogy by using the word like. For example, if you are writing about violence on television, is that violence like clowns fighting in a carnival act (that is, we know that no one is really getting hurt)?
Take a rest and let it all percolate.
Summarize your whole idea.
Tell it to someone in three or four sentences.
Diagram your major points somehow.
Make a tree, outline, or whatever helps you to see a schematic representation of what you have. You may discover the need for more material in some places. Write a first draft.
Then, if possible, put it away. Later, read it aloud or to yourself as if you were someone else. Watch especially for the need to clarify or add more information.
You may find yourself jumping back and forth among these various strategies.
You may find that one works better than another. You may find yourself trying several strategies at once. If so, then you are probably doing something right.

What makes a good essay?

Thu, 29 Oct 2009 23:03:53 +0000

Read the topic and sample essay, then study the comments. Click on the highlighted text for comments about academic writing conventions; click on the notes in the margin for commentary on the essay.
comment
Essay topic:
“Birth rates are falling in developed countries. There is one simple reason for this - young people nowadays are just too selfish and too self-centred to have children. And this is particularly true of women”. To what extent do you agree with this view? Support your argument with relevant readings and evidence.
Sample essay
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Using “I” - first person pronouns
Notice how the student uses “I” in his essay:
The best explanation, I believe, is…. And in the previous sentence, another first person pronoun is used: My argument is that …
Some students have the impression that they are not allowed to use these words in their written work. But in fact they can often be found in academic writing. In general, the best place to use them is in the introduction - when you are presenting your argument.
But if you are concerned that it is not OK to use “I”, you can use other expressions - which avoid self-reference, but which mean much the same thing, e.g. This essay will argue that … Remember though, that the really important issue is not the words you use to present your argument - but that your essay actually has a clear argument.
commentCountries in the developed world have seen a big shift in attitudes to population growth. Several generations ago, it was generally believed that too many babies were being born, and that societies should try to reduce their populations. Nowadays, however, the concern is the reverse - that birthrates are falling too low and that urgent action is needed to encourage people to have more children. But what are the causes of this trend? And how much are the attitudes and lifestyles of young people to blame? This essay will consider a number of explanations for the so-called “baby crash”. commentMy argument will be that to hold young people responsible is neither valid nor helpful. The best explanation, I believe, is to be found in the condition of increased economic insecurity faced by the young.
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Paragraphs
Try to keep your paragraphs a reasonable length. (Most paragraphs in this essay are around 7-8 sentences long.)
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Citation 1 (Chesnais, 1998)
Citations are used to indicate the source of the ideas you have used in your essay. Note that there are two main citation systems:
1. the author-date system (also known as Harvard);
2. the footnote system (also known as Oxford).
In this essay, the author-date system has been used. (Always check which system is required in each of your subjects.)
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Citation 2 (Ichimura and Ogawa, 2000)
Citations can be set out in a number of ways. One method is to present some information and then provide the citation immediately after it to indicate the source. These are known as ‘information-prominent’ citations eg:
Japan now has a birthrate of only about 1.3, and Hong Kong’s has fallen to below 1.0 (Ichimura and Ogawa, 2000).
Other formats are considered further on.
comment The birth rate has fallen dramatically in many parts of the world. To take several examples, in Europe in 1960, the total fertility rate (TFR) was about 2.6 births per female, but in 1996 it had fallen to 1.4 (Chesnais, 1998). In many Asian countries, similar declines have been experienced. Japan now has a birthrate of only about 1.3, and Hong Kong’s has fallen to below 1.0 (Ichimura and Ogawa, 2000). A TFR of below 2.0 means that a country’s population is not replaced, and thus there is a net population decline. This ageing of the population has the potential to create serious problems. Fewer children being born means that in the long term, a smaller proportion of the populace will be economically productive, whilst a larger proportion will be old and economically dependent - in the form of pension, health care and other social services. Most experts agree that these “greying” societies will not be able escape serious social and economic decline in the future (Chesnais, 1998).
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Citation 3 Masahiro Yamada (cited in Ashby, 2000)
This citation means that the student is dealing with the ideas of Yamada, but actually read about them in Ashby’s text. Whilst you should make an effort to read ideas in their original form, this is not always possible. In such cases, use the ‘cited in’ format.
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Reporting expressions
When you are summarising the ideas of a writer, you need to use reporting expressions like the ones used here:
He [Yamada] uses the term …
According to Yamada,…
… he says …etc.
commentSo what are the causes of this trend and what can be done to stop it? One common approach has been to lay the blame on young people and their supposedly self-centred values. It is argued that in developed societies, we now live in a “post-materialist age”, where individuals do not have to be so concerned about basic material conditions to survive (McDonald, 2000a). Thus people, especially the young, have become more focussed on the values of self-realisation and the satisfaction of personal preferences, at the expense of traditional values like raising a family. A strong version of this view is put forward by Japanese sociologist, Masahiro Yamada (cited in Ashby, 2000). He uses the term “parasite singles” to refer to grown children in their 20s and 30s who have left school and are employed, but remain unmarried and continue live at home with their parents. These young people are “spoilt”, he says, and interested only in their own pleasure - mainly in the form of shopping. According to Yamada, it is this focus on self, more than any other factor, that is responsible for Japan’s languishing birth rate (Ashby, 2000). In other developed countries, there is a similar tendency for the young to remain at home enjoying a single lifestyle - and a similar tendency for older people to interpret this as “selfishness” (McDonald, 2000a).
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“Scare quotes”
You use these to distance yourself from certain language. eg. when you are using an informal expression, or a term used by others that you don’t necessarily agree with.
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Careful language (it seems that….)
In this paragraph, the student wants to reject the view in the topic - that young people’s selfishness is to blame for the declining birthrate. Notice how he does this in a careful way, by using expressions like:
Findings like this suggest that …
It seems then that …
Being careful about the way you express your claims is a distinctive feature of academic style.
commentBut is it reasonable to attribute the baby crash to the “pleasure-seeking” values of the young? The problem with this view is that whenever young people are surveyed about their attitudes to family, not only do they say they want to have children, they also express preferences for family sizes that are, on average, above the replacement level (McDonald, 2000a). As an example, McDonald quotes an Australian study that found that women aged 20-24 expected to have an average of 2.33 children in their lifetime. Findings like this suggest that the values of the young are not at all incompatible with the idea of having a family. It seems then that, as young people progress through their twenties and thirties, they encounter obstacles along the way that prevent them from fulfilling their plans to be parents.
commentSome conservative thinkers believe the main “obstacle” is the changed role and status of women (eg. Norton, 2003). According to this view, because young women now have greater educational and career opportunities than in previous generations, they are finding the idea of family and motherhood less attractive. Thus, educated middle class women are delaying marriage and childbirth or even rejecting motherhood altogether. It is claimed that women’s improved status - which may be a good thing in itself - has had the unfortunate consequence of threatening population stability.
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“Quoting”
When you quote an author (like Chesnais here) you need to use quotation marks, and indicate the exact page number in the citation.
Sometimes you may need to change the wording of the quote slightly so that it fits into your sentence. If you need to add/change any words, use [ ]; if you need to delete words, use … (Whilst it is OK to change the wording of a quote, you must never change its sense.)
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Italics - for emphasis
Use italics when you want to emphasise a word. (When you do this in a quote, you need to indicate that it is your emphasis.)
commentBut there are several problems with this argument. For one, the lowest TFRs in Europe are found in Spain and Italy (around 1.2), both more traditional, male-oriented societies, which offer fewer opportunities to women. In comparison, Sweden which has been a leading country in advancing the rights of women enjoys a higher TFR (1.6 in 1996) - even though it is still below replacement. Chesnais (1998: p. 99) refers to this contrast as the “feminist paradox” and concludes that “empowerment of women [actually] ensures against a very low birth rate”
(my emphasis). Another problem with trying to link improved education levels for women to low birth rates is that fertility in developed countries seems to be declining across all education and class levels. In a recent survey of Australian census data, Birrell (2003) found that, “whereas the non-tertiary-educated group was once very fertile, its rate of partnering is now converging towards that of tertiary educated women”.
We can summarise the discussion to this point as follows:
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Dot points
It’s OK to use dot points in an essay (or numbered points here), but use them very sparingly.
1. Young people today, in spite of what’s said about their values, still express a desire to have children. However, few end up having as many as they say they would like.
2. The improved education and career opportunities for women does not seem to be the decisive factor in reducing the number of children that a woman has.
commentThese conclusions suggest that there must be something else involved. Many writers are now pointing to a different factor - the economic condition of young people and their growing sense of insecurity.
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Citation 4 Peter McDonald (2000a) … discusses
Notice how in some citations the author can be part of the sentence: Peter McDonald (2000a) … discusses some of the things etc. This is known as an ‘author-prominent’ citation and is very common in academic writing. Notice the use of reporting verbs in this citation type (”discusses”).
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Titles
Use ‘inverted commas’ for the title of an article. Use italics for the title of a book
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More reporting expressions
Notice some of the other reporting expressions used in the student’s summary of Peter McDonald’s ideas:
… what McDonald calls…
… McDonald suggests …
… McDonald points to …
… which he thinks…
Peter McDonald (2000a) in his article ‘Low fertility in Australia: Evidence, causes and policy responses’ discusses some of the things that a couple will consider when they are thinking of having a child. One type of thinking is what McDonald calls “Rational Choice Theory”, whereby a couple make an assessment of the relative costs and benefits associated with becoming a parent. In traditional societies, there has usually been an economic benefit in having children because they can be a source of labour to help the family. In developed societies, however, children now constitute an economic cost, and so, it is argued, the benefits are more of a psychological kind - for example, enjoying the status of being a parent, having baby who will be fun and will grow up to love you, having offspring who will carry on the family name etc. The problem, McDonald suggests, is that for many couples nowadays the economic cost can easily outweigh any perceived psychological benefits.
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Indenting of paragraphs
It’s very important to make it clear to your reader when one paragraph ends and a new one begins. In this paragraph (#9), there is some potential for confusion. Notice how the student has used indenting to make this clear.
comment McDonald (2000b) discusses another type of decision-making - “Risk Aversion Theory” - which he says is also unfavourable to the birth rate. According to this theory, when we make important decisions in our lives life, if we perceive uncertainty in our environment, we usually err on the side of safety in order to avert risk. McDonald points to a rise in economic uncertainty which he thinks has steered a lot of young people away from life-changing decisions like marriage and parenthood:
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“Quoting” 2 - longer quotes
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Jobs are no longer lifetime jobs. There is a strong economic cycle of booms and busts. Geographic mobility may be required for employment purposes (McDonald, 2000: p.15).
Birrell (2003) focuses on increased economic uncertainty for men. Referring to the situation in Australia, he discusses men’s reluctance to form families in terms of perceived costs and risks:
Many men are poor - in 2001, 42 per cent of men aged 25-44 earnt less than $32,000 a year. Only two-thirds of men in this age group were in full-time work. Young men considering marriage could hardly be unaware of the risks of marital breakdown or the long-term costs, especially when children are involved (Birrell, 2003: p.12).
And Yuji Genda (2000) in Japan, responding to Yamada’s analysis of “parasite singles”, argues that the failure of young Japanese to leave home and start families is not due to self-indulgence, but is an understandable response to increasingly difficult economic circumstances. Genda (2000) notes that it is the young who have had to bear the brunt of the decade long restructuring of the Japanese economy, with youth unemployment hovering around 10% and a marked reduction in secure full-time jobs for the young.
Young people around the world seem to have an increasing perception of economic uncertainty and contemplate something their parents would have found impossible - a decline in living standards over their lifetime. According to a 1990 American survey, two thirds of respondents in the 18-29 age group thought it would be more difficult for their generation to live as comfortably as previous generations (cited in Newman, 2000: p.505). Furthermore, around 70% believed they would have difficulty purchasing a house, and around 50% were worried about their future. Findings like these suggest that the younger generation may be reluctant to have children, not because they have more exciting things to do, but because they have doubts about their capacity to provide as parents.
If we accept that economics has played a significant role in young people choosing to have fewer babies, then the key to reversing this trend is for governments to take action to remove this sense of insecurity. A number of policy approaches have been suggested. Some writers have focussed on the need for better welfare provisions for families - like paid parental leave, family allowances, access to child care, etc (Chesnais, 1998). Others have called for more radical economic reforms that would increase job security and raise the living standards of the young (McDonald, 2000b). It is hard to know what remedies are needed. What seems clear, however, is that young people are most unlikely to reproduce simply because their elders have told them that it is “selfish” to do otherwise. Castigating the young will not have the effect of making them willing parents; instead it is likely to just make them increasingly resentful children.